Holiest of Holies - Harmandir Sahib

Sikhism is but one of many religions of the Indian subcontinent. It competes with a multitude of others for the hearts and minds of believers, including the mighty Hinduism and Islam, as well as Indian Buddhism, Jainism and Christianity brought over by colonial forces. It is a religion followed by approximately 1.5 per cent of all Indians, amounting to more than 21 million believers. Over 2 million more observe the rituals of Sikhism elsewhere; however the numbers do not lie: Sikhism is an Indian religion. Specifically, it is a Punjabi religion, as the largest concentration of Sikhs in India is in this state - along with neighboring Punjab in Pakistan - although they can be found in most states of India.

As a result of this concentration of its believers, it is only natural that Sikhism has left its greatest mark in this part of the world, in the form of temples and houses of worship. And that it has done, more so than antything else, in the form of gurdwaras.

A gurdwara (from Punjabi for gateway to the guru) is a house of worship for Sikhs, although followers of all faiths are welcome to gurdwaras. A temple can be deemed to be a gurdwara in Sikhism if the Guru Granth Sahib - the 1430 page-long central religious scripture of Sikhism compiled during the late 15th century - is maintained within the main hall of the temple (called the Darbar Sahib) on a throne in a prominent position. Once announced as a gurdwara, the temple becomes a holy place for Sikhs to converge to and pray.

Most gurdwaras are elaborately decorated, striking buildings that demonstrate the value given to the Guru Granth Sahib by Sikhs; they are heavily ornamented, and they often are built of materials of great value, such as gold. As such, most gurdwaras are structures that appeal to the eyes of believers of all religions alike. And no other example of these temples comes close to the sheer beauty of one that sits in the middle of a pool in the city of Amritsar in Punjab: the Harmandir Sahib.

Harmandir Sahib (literally Temple of God), also known informally as the Golden Temple, is one of many gurdwaras in India. But it is easily the most well-known of all Sikh temples. Built in the 16th century by the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjun Dev Ji, its holy scripture was installed in 1604. But the idea of a temple at this location was first conceived after the fourth guru, Guru Ram Das, excavated a pool in the area between 1570 and 1577 on land purchased by earlier gurus. The pool subsequently became known as Amritsar - "pool of the nectar of immortality" - and the city with the same name grew around it at about the same time. Later, the temple itself was built to house the holy scriptures of Sikhism, and hence Sri Harmandir Sahib (the temple, or abode, of God) was born.

Guru Arjan Dev Ji himself designed the building after he came up with the idea of a central house of worship for the Sikhs, and the construction began in earnest in 1588 under his supervision. After it was completed in 1604, Guru Arjan appointed Baba Buddha as the first reader to the temple and the place of worship was ready for its visitors.

The temple is built on a pedestal in the middle of a pool - or holy tank - known as the sarovar, which consists of Amrit (holy water or immortal nectar; hence the name Amritsar) and is fed by the river Ravi. The temple itself is in fact built on lower ground compared to the surroundings, although it is in the middle of the sarovar, so that followers will have to go down rather than climb up when going in to pray.

There are four entrances to the temple on each one of the facades of the building, signifying the iimportance of openness in Sikhism. This means that people of all races, sexes, religions are welcome at the Harmandir Sahib, as long as they obey three principles:

• Purity - removing shoes and not consuming alcohol, cigarettes, drugs or meat inside
• Modesty - dressing appropriately
• Respect - sitting on the ground while there is a religious procession

The gilding, along with majority of the marblework, dates to the early 19th century works overseen by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Inside the temple itself one can see plaques conmemorating Sikh historical events, saints and martyrs, and outside the temple but within the complex of the gurdwara, shrines to gurus and saints can be found.

The temple suffered significant damage due to Afghan attacks in 1760, and it had to be rebuilt in 1764 by Jassa Singh Ahluwalia with help from other Sikh Misls (any one of the twellve sovereign states in the Sikh Confederacy). Most of the structure that remains today dates to this period, although the gilding on the upper floors are from the early 19th century as mentioned before.

A much more recent case of trouble was brought upon the temple by none other than Indira Gandhi, daughter of Rajiv Gandhi, who initiated Operation Blue Star at the temple in order to put an end to Dharam Yudh Morcha - an opposition group with demands for more rights for the Sikh inhabitants of the region. The operation brought tanks and artillery to the temple and resulted in widepread protests and arrests, and it eventually led to the assasination of Gandhi by her Sikh bodyguards. In the fighting that ensued, many people were killed and the temple suffered significant damage that took decades to fully repair.

All religions have left behind a trail of destruction and pain to some extent. They are one of the main causes of strife among peoples, and still lead to wars around the world. But they have also left behind some of the most elegant works of architecture and helped architecture become what it is today. Harmandir Sahib is no exception, and it is proof that, yes, some that glitters is gold.

Disney Empire in Silver: WD Concert Hall

Walt Disney is no stranger to us. Generations have grown with his cartoons; his stories are still told and his animations still feature in movie theaters around the world. Yet he is much more than a cartoonist. His media empire, fueled by his imagination and supported by his brother Roy, has done more than what many others could ever dream. He built a conglomerate that produces and distributes movies - not only cartoons, mind you - as well as operating a multitude of theme parks around the world, selling Disney branded merchandise, operating TV networks (including ABC and ESPN) and even producing Marvel comicbooks. At his death in 1966, he left a legacy that few other people can come close to in his adopted hometown of Los Angeles, to where he had moved from the midwestern United States. The empire the Disney brothers founded in 1923 in Hollywood eventually has grown to a giant with revenues of more than 45 billion dollars in 2013.

What better tribute, then, could be than to erect an eternal monument to the city he helped make? That is what Lillian Disney, Walt's wife from 1925 until his passing, had in mind when she donated 50 million dollars to the city of Los Angeles in 1987; she wanted the city to build a performing arts center to conmemorate her late husband. The center would serve as a reminder of Disney's dedication to both art and to Los Angeles. This donation was, essentially, the spark that led to the commissioning of one of the most remarkable buildings ever built in California. It was what made the Walt Disney Concert Hall possible.

It took the city of Los Angeles nearly 16 years to realize Lillian's dream, however. The Walt Disney Concert Hall opened its doors in 2003, four years after Lillian herself passed away - she did not live to see her husband's iconic tribute in real life. Built in downtown LA, on a strech of Grand Avenue between 1st and 2nd streets, the hall was officially opened on October 24, 2003 as the new home of the LA Philarmonic Orchestra and the LA Master Chorale and part of the larger Los Angeles Music Center.

Immediately after its opening, it became a source of intrigue for Los Angelinos that were not used to seeing such works of prominent architects within their city. The hall is by no means the first work of Frank Gehry of - the famous American architect - in California of course; him having designed many others including his own residence back in 1971. In fact, the majority of his works, especially those dating to his earlier years were in this state. However, it was only after the 1990s that he gained widespread recognition, during which period most of his commissionings were outside the United States.

Specifically, his Bilbao Guggenheim Museum project that opened in 1997, the topic of a future post on this blog, was a turning point in his career and led him to popularity in the architectural world; it was this structure that reshaped a sleeping Basque capital into an art mecca. However, Gehry had already started working on the Walt Disney Concert Hall in 1987 right after the donation from Disney's widow to LA, and his designs for the hall had already been completed and delivered to the city of Los Angeles back in 1991. Indeed, during the time he was working on the concert hall project, he was recognized for his architectural work and awarded the prestigious Pritzker Prize in 1989.

What made him more prominent and famous - a starchitect according to some - was his rather increasing use of polished metal surfaces, combined with deconstructivist aspects in his works. His projects after the 1990s have increasingly followed this pattern, starting with the Olympic Fish in Barcelona's famous olympic village overlooking the Mediterranean.Weisman Museum of Art in Minneapolis, the Dancing House (more commonly known as the Fred and Ginger Building) in Prague and of course the Guggenheim all were steps in this direction. But his Walt Disney Concert Hall project, which in fact predates most of these buildings but was delayed due to funding and building issues, is arguably his ultimate work in this scheme. His work has been such praised lately that he was labeled the most important architect of our age by the Vanity Fair and awarded the design works of the future memorial for Eisenhower.

Constructed as part of the LA Music Center, itself a complex of several buildings including the Dorothy Chandler Pavillion (that the hall replaced as the main venue), Ahmanson Theater and Mark Taper Forum, the Walt Disney Concert Hall hosts the philarmonic orchestra and the chorale of the city. The opera and the dance company occupy the Dorothy Chandler Pavillion next door, while the other two buildings host theater companies. As such, the hall's main purpose is to cater for orchestral musical performances, allowing the architecture to focus on delivering a superior acoustical performance.

The ground works for the hall began in 1992, with the first stage comprising of the underground parking garage completed in 1996 at a whopping cost of 110 million dollars. With the entire project far exceeding its anticipated budget, the construction stalled after this for a while, and it was not until 1999 that new funds were secured and construction of the hall itself began in earnest. In fact, it was during this stage that the external cladding was changed from stone to sheet metal to reduce costs - a decision that led to the hallmark look of the current structure. Lillian Disney herself died only days after the groundbreaking for the hall, on the very same day her beloved husband had passed away 33 years before.

The entire project, completed in 2003, cost more than 274 million dollars, mostly funded by private donors. In addition to the initial 50 million given by Lillian, a further 35 million dollars were handed by the Disney family, as well as another 25 million dollars from the Walt Disney Company itself.

Upon completion, the hall was lauded for both its architectural accomplishment and its acoustic design - designed by Yasuhisa Toyota. The concert hall's interior walls are covered with Douglas fir, while the hall features a large concert organ whose facade was also designed by Gehry himself. This organ was added to the hall in 2004 to be used in a special concert for the National Convention of the American Guild of Organists.

The interior of the hall sets the bar as high as possible as concert halls go. But it is the exterior of the building that inspires awe more often than not. Built in the deconstructivist style that Gehry is a well-known ambassador, the building gives different views from every angle. This architectural style is an offshoot of postmodern architecture characterized by fragmentation, manipulation of surfaces, introduction of unexpected angles and curves to break the dominance of rectilinear shapes in buildings. The end result is often a building that can represent controlled chaos in architecture.

Obviously, the Walt Disney Concert Hall is one such building, with almost no straight edges except those mandatory to fit physical constraints, both concave and convex surfaces, entry / exit points at the least expected locations and a sense of loss of direction when looked at from afar. By combining all these, the hall exemplifies how non-conventional shapes can still be part of everyday architecture without loss of functionality.

Still, the hall has not been without its issues. The concave sections of polished metal, combined with the high temperatures of Southern California, has resulted in sunlight being focused on streets and buildings nearby and temperatures of up to 60 degrees Celsius being recorded in these spots. In addition, glare caused by the reflective metal has resulted in increased danger of traffic accidents. To solve these issues, certain sections of the reflective metal coating were sanded over by Gehry's firm in 2005.

Downtown Los Angeles has been decaying for a long time. As the old center of one of the world's most renowned metropolises, it needed a hand to lift it up. The hand came in the form of a concert hall, that would not only serve as a means of revitalizing a once forgotten part of the city, but also as a tribute to a great man that reshaped entertainment into what we know now. Thanks to the Walt Disney Concert Hall by Gehry, a giant name and a great city will both have a new lease on life.

San Marco: An Alien in Venice

And the Doge said to them that they had done ill in that they had asked, through their messengers, that the Venetians should make ready a fleet for four thousand knights and their accruements and for an hundred thousand foot; whereas, of these knights, there were scarce more than a thousand, since the rest had gone to other harbours, and of these hundred thousand footmen, there were scarce more than fifty or sixty thousand. "Wherefore we desire," said the Doge, "that ye pay us the sums promised, which were afreed upon with us."

The 4th Crusade and its ultimate result, the sack of Constantinople, was documented by Robert de Clari - a lower level knight in the crusade, and these are part of his description of the events in his own words. As trivial and petty as the description of the events are, the whole adventure resulted in a major shift of power in the Western world. More specifically, it was a significant blow to Constantinople's power and a means of shifting the power it had held since the fall of Western Roman Empire back to the Italian peninsula - more accurately, to Venice.

 

The 4th Crusade, lasting between 1202 and 1204, did not only shift power, but it also moved vast amounts of wealth, in the form of money and priceless artwork alike, across the eastern Mediterranean. Originally meant to reconquer Jerusalem, the crusade devolved into the looting of one of the most magnificient cities of its time - Constantinople. The transfer of wealth helped change an already flourishing Adriatic town and propel it into the list of world powers. It paved the way for Venice to become what it is now - the most wealthy region of a country that is rightly proud of its art and architecture. And one of the most easily recognizable outcomes of this transformation has been the religious heart of Venice, the San Marco Cathedral.

Known as the Basilica Cattedrale Patriarcale di San Marco (Patriarchal Cathedral Basilica of Saint Mark), the San Marco is the cathedral of Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Venice since 1807, and easily the most well-known of the city's churches. It is also a rather unique piece of architecture in that it combines elements of Byzantian and Italian architectural forms. A more colloquial name - Chiesa di Oro (Church of Gold) - is also used when referring to the church, with regard to its opulent mosaics in gold. Located at the edge of the Piazza San Marco, and connected to the Doge's Palace - as it had once served as the chapel of the Doge himself  (the title "doge" is a variant of the title "duke", given to the chief magistrate of Venice).

There is evidence that an earlier church had been built at the same location between 828 and 832 by orders from the doge of the time. This construction was commissioned after a fleet of Venetian merchants stole relics of Mark the Evangelist from Alexandria in Egypt and a church to store the relics was needed. This church was burned down in a rebellion in 976, and rebuilt two years later. No architectural details pertaining to these two earlier churches are known.

The current cathedral was - probably - commissioned from 1073 onwards, although an exact date cannot be given. The year 1093 is frequently mentioned as the date of consecration, although other possible alternatives including 1084, 1102 and 1117 are also suggested. A specific date cannot be, however, given for the completion of the cathedral, as it is now known that the structure has evolved - both structurally and decoratively - over time, and still continues to do so today.

The influence of Byzantium on the architecture and the decoration of the church is evident. The basic floor plan of the church is of a Greek cross form (the western dome is larger that the others, based on Constantine's Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople), and this shape has not changed significantly throughout history. The golden mosaics that give the building its nickname were also heavily influenced by Byzantian art, thanks to mosaic workshops started by artisans that probably moved to the city from Constantinople. However, as Italian renaissance flourished in Italy, the influence of Byzantium in art and architecture declined, and so the building evolved in a more Italianate way and future additions bear witness to this fact. For example, the original domes were covered with lead covered wood domes to match with the nearby Doge's Palace built in Italian Gothic style.

Although the influence of Byzantium on the actual architecture of the building waned through time, the sack of Constantinople can be considered the single most important influence on the church. San Marco would not have been what it is now had the fourth crusade never happened. Many spoils from the sack ended up adorning the cathedral; columns, column capitals, friezes, statues alike all were brought over from Constantinople to decorate the church - in fact the original building, made of brick, was eventually covered with white marble from Byzantium that resulted in the current look of the structure.

The mosaics adorning the building, like in most churches, take their cues from both the Old Testament and the New Testament, particularly Genesis and the lives of Noah, Abraham, Moses and Joseph. The compositions in these mosaics strongly resemble those pictured in a Greek manuscript called the Cotton Genesis, itself assumed to have reached Venice after the fourth crusade.

Two significant additions to the building that came by way of the sack of Constantinople are the statue of Horses of San Marco and the statue of the Tetrarchs. Horses of San Marco were placed at the church around 1254, being removed from the Hippodrome of Constantinople during the fourth crusade. This statue is claimed to have originally adorned the Arch of Trajan in Rome, from where it had been moved to Constantinople, although this is not certain. The actual statue is in fact a replica, the original being located in St. Mark's Museum within the basilica. The other famous piece of sculpture, the statue of the Tetrarchs, was also looted from Constantinople and brought to the basilica around the same time.

 

In terms of function, the church also did evolve - originally serving as the private chapel of the Doge, the San Marco eventually became the state church (a crown it carried until 1807, shortly after Venetian Republic dissolved and Venice became part of Austrian territory). After this date, the cathedral assumed a patriarchal role, housing the Patriarch of Venice. The cathedral was administered, throughout its history, by the procurators of Venetian Republic, as with most major Venetian buildings; this title indeed exists to this very day.

Venice was a merchant, warrior republic. It rose to power through the weakness of other nations. This is more evident than anywhere else in the dazzling golden beauty of San Marco; an elaborate, intricate amalgam of Byzantian and Italian art showing us once again that architecture is in perpetual continuity.

Redeeming the World, Single Soul at a Time

Few people that have walked this planet have left a mark as strong as Jesus of Nazareth has. As the central figure of Christianity - the world's largest religion in terms of followers - and believed to be the son of God by the followers of this faith, Jesus has definitely been a source of power and inspiration alike throughout history, and continues to do so to this day. Thus, he is also the person that has been visualized in different media, such as painting, iconography, sculpture, more than any other human being. Wherever Christianity has spread, his image can be found in one form or another, symbolizing the power of God, his faith and its followers.

Obviously, like in most religious architecture, exaggeration plays a strong part when it comes to the depiction of Jesus. Throughout history, churches, cathedrals, mosques, temples and other houses of faith have always been in a not-so-silent race to the largest and most striking, and religious sculpture is no different. Statues of Jesus have been built in massive dimensions all over the globe, especially in predominantly Catholic societies where the power of the church is stronger; in fact, some statues of Jesus have even been built underwater.

One statue of this son of God however, thanks to its location, its imposing altitude, its presence in a large Catholic society among other factors, has beat its holy competition and become an icon. The Christ the Redeemer statue (Cristo Redentor in Portuguese) overlooking the breathtaking city of Rio de Janeiro is, by far, the most memorable statue dedicated to Jesus, and rightly so.

Built in nine years between 1922 and 1931, Cristo Redentor statue stands 30 meters tall - excluding an 8 meter high pedestal - on top of the Corcovado mountain, which itself rises 700 meters above the city of Rio. The statue was constructed from reinforced concrete and soapstone, and held the title of the world's tallest Art Deco statue from its completion until 2010, when it surrendered this title to another statue of Jesus in Poland.

As is common with the Art Deco style, the statue combines tradition motifs with machine age images, resulting in an amalgam of geometric shapes, heavy ornamentation and powerful symmetry. Most popular during the 1920s through to 1940s, the Art Deco had appeared as an answer to man's struggle to reconcile the impact of industrialization and its not yet dissolved ties with tradition and crafts.

An idea to build a statue of Jesus on top of the Corcovado mountain was first brought up in mid 1850s, when Catholic priest Pedro Maria Boss sought financing for a statue from Princess Isabella of Portugal. This idea was floated for a lengthy peiod before being entirely dismissed in 1889 when Brazil became a secular  republic. A second proposal was made in 1921 by the Catholic Circle of Rio de Janeiro, who organized an event to rally support and collect donations for the construction of the statue.

During the design stage of the monument, several alternatives were considered; these included a Christian cross, Jesus holding a globe and a spherical pedestal that would symbolize the world. However, the current design was eventually chosen for the statue, and construction began the following year.

The statue was sculpted by Polish-French sculptor Paul Landowski, based on designs of local engineer Heitor da Silva Costa, and it was built from reinforced concrete instead of steel to ensure rigidity needed for the stability of the cross shape. The face of Jesus was designed by Romanian scluptor Gheorghe Leonida. Finishing material was selected as soapstone, thanks to its endurance and ease during sculpting.

Completed in 1931, the monument was floodlit to ensure maximum visual impact for viewers; however a plan to light the floodlights from Rome by Guglielmo Marconi - the Italian inventor of long distance radio communication - did not work out as envisioned; local workers had to light the statue.

The statue was restored several times throughout its lifetime, mostly as a means to reduce erosion due to nature. Lightning strikes and wind erosion are the two largest contributors of damage to the statue, and two recent lightning strikes in 2008 and 2014 both caused visible structural damage that required repairs. Restorations that are worth mentioning were carried out in 1990, and from 2003 through 2010. In 2006, a chapel was consecrated under the statue, which paved the way for baptisms and weddings to be performed in this location; this obviously only added to the statue's popularity.

Much more recently, travel blogger and photographer Lee Thompson climbed to the top of the statue, and took selfies from this location. In doing so, he brought together two different worlds two millennia apart - the world of Jesus, and the world of smartphones. Obviously, no one cam claim these worlds seem awkward together.

An Ode to Charles IV on the Vltava; Charles Bridge

Bridges are iconic structures. They are intended to bridge by all meanings of the word; physically bridge two banks of a geographical barrier, socially bridge two neighboring communities, emotionally bridge people and visually bridge an otherwise break in human settlement continuity. They have always been among the most popular public works throughout history by rulers of various populations, as they carry so much significance and add such value. In a way, they are so iconic that they manage to become the symbol of their hometowns, much like Tower Bridge in London, Golden Gate in San Francisco or Brooklyn Bridge in New York City has. And as symbolic bridges go, it would be a shame to not mention one particular example in mystic Prague: Charles Bridge.

Called the Karluv Most in Czech - after the famous king of Bohemia, Charles IV - Charles Bridge is only one of 18 or so bridges crossing the river Vltava in Prague along its 31 kilometer long journey through the city. Vltava is the longest river in Czech Republic, and it flows for several hundred kilometers within the country before it joins the river Elbe.


Charles IV (or Karel IV in Czech), born Wenceslaus in 1316 as the fourth son to King John of Bohemia, inherited the Kingdom of Bohemia and the Country of Luxembourg from his father when John died at the Battle of Crecy (a significant battle fought during the Hundred Years' War) in 1346. He was also the first Bohemian king to assume the title of Holy Roman Emperor, elected by prince-electors in opposition to Emperor Louis IV of France as the King of Romans. He later became the King of Italy in 1355, and shortly thereafter he was crowned the Holy Roman Emperor during the same year. He died peacefully in 1378, at the age of sixty-two.

One of Charles' achievements during his reign, among many others, was the commissioning of a bridge over the Vltava river that divided the city into two parts; namely the Castle and the Old Town. There had already been a bridge connecting the two banks, Judith Bridge, which had been built between 1158 and 1172, but this had been damaged by a flooding during 1342, necessitating an immediate replacement. Construction of the new bridge started in 1357 during the reign of Charles IV, although its opening to public was much later, towards the beginning of 15th century. The new bridge was originally called the Stone Bridge, but it was renamed with its current title in 1870 to conmemorate the emperor. Charles Bridge was the only crossing on the river until 1841, and hence helped maintain the connection between the two banks and facilitated the flourishing of commerce and trade in the city.



Made of stone and spanning for 621 meters and 10 meters wide, the bridge is composed of 16 arches and protected by three bridge towers - two of them on the Castle bank (or Lesser Quarter bank as commonly known), and the other one on the Old Town bank. This single tower, built in the Gothic style, is an architectural marvel on its own. The bridge itself is an architectural gem, being adorned by a total of thirty statues mostly in Baroque style. An interesting fact to note here, however, is that the original Gothic decorations on the bridge were intact until the end of Thirty Years' War in 1648. As Swedish occupation forces in the Lesser Quarter of Prague tried to advance towards the Old Town via the bridge, heavy fighting occurred on the bridge and almost destroyed one side of the Old Town bridge tower, forcing the Czech to remove Gothic decorations on the tower. They followed with the Baroque tradition when restoring the face fo the tower, and hence they felt compelled to replace the decorations on the bridge itself with Baroque statues.

The original sculptures on the bridge were mostly erected between 1683 and 1714, each depicting a saint, sculpted by prominent Czech artists of the period. However, after 1965 - as part of a major repair program (more on that later) - all statues have been systematically replaced by replicas. The original sculptures were transferred to the National Museum for storage. Some of the more famous sculptures on the bridge include that of St Luthgard on the south side, and those of the Crucifix and Calgary, of Saints Norbert of Xanten, Wenceslas and Sigismund, and of St John of Nepomuk on the north side.

Apart from major wars and occupations, like the Swedish occupation, several other disasters struck the bridge throughout its history, including a flood in 1432 that damaged three pillars, another flood in 1784 that took five pillars, and again in 1890 yet one more flood that claimed five more pillars of the bridge. During this last flood, two statues - St Ignatius of Loyola and St Xavier - also were lost to the river. In 1848, a revolt damaged some statues on the bridge.

Much more recently, between 1965 and 1978, all pillars were stabilized, broken and chipped stone blocks were replaced, asphalt top was removed and all vehicle traffic was banned from the bridge as part of a major repair program to extend the bridge's life. This program also included replacement of the statues with replicas, as mentioned before.

Burj Khalifa: So Far So Tall

Human nature is rather predictable in one sense: When given the chance, it aspires for bigger, higher, and more importantly, better. This observation holds true for science, and it does so for art - two seemingly distinct but rather interlinked concepts. Then it is no wonder that the same can be said for architecture, which is a perfectly balanced combination of science and art. It comes as no surprise that as civilization has progressed, as have achievements in architecture, and they all have aimed to produce the most memorable work. A piece of artwork that will awe people whenever they glance upon it, and a scientific miracle that will make jaws drop - that has been a goal for so long. And that goal has - for the time being - achieved in the form of an elegant building that soars above the clouds. The result is Burj Khalifa (or Khalifa Tower), the new landmark of Dubai.

Burj Khalifa, originally known as Burj Dubai during its construction, is the tallest man-made structure in the world, standing a whopping 829.8 meters in Dubai (one of seven emirates making up UAE and arguably the most famous of them thanks to prominent construction projects and the Emirates airline). This height makes the building a megatall - above 600 meters - as opposed to supertall, which is a title reserved for buildings above 300 meters in height. Although part of a much larger mixed-use project aimed at generating interest in Dubai, the sheer size of the building ensures that it stays the centerpiece of the development. This rather lavish vanity project was initiated to create a diversification from oil-based economies of the Gulf countries and to expand tourism and services in Dubai.

The construction of the tower - carried out by Samsung Engineering & Construction of South Korea - took a little over five years, from ground breaking in September 2004 to its official opening in January 2010. Designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill of Chicago, colloquially known as SOM, the building shares its chief architect - one Adrian Smith - with other famous buildings including Jin Mao tower in Shanghai and Trump International Hotel and Tower in Chicago, both supertalls.

The design firm SOM itself is no stranger to skyscrapers, as its 78 year history is dotted with testaments to mankind's fascination with heights, such as Willis Tower (formerly Sears Tower) and the One World Trade Center (that has been built after the destruction of the WTC towers in 2001 attacks). Formed in 1936 by Louis Skidmore and Nathaniel Owings and soon joined by John Merrill, SOM has been a prominent architectural firm that has specialized in skyscrapers built in the international style, recognized from their rather boxy shapes ad liberal use of glass facades. Having emerged in the 20s and 30s, international style relies on rectilinear forms, taut plane surfaces sans ornamentation, open and airy interiors and the use of cantilevered construction. However, Burj Khalifa is not without its local inspirations; Islamic architecture, and in particular the spiral minaret that gets slender as it rises above the ground, has influenced the architects when designing an icon that would feel home at Dubai. In total, there are 27 setbacks that make the tower slimmer as it rises, with the building cross section significantly smaller on the upper floors.

Building upon the accomplishments of earlier structures, Burj Khalifa has both mastered and perfected international style at once, and while doing so, it also broke several other records in addition to the tallest building title. Burj Khalifa currently is the structure with the most floors (163 floors) and the highest occupied floor at 584.5 meters. It also features the world's highest nightclub (on floor 144) and restaurant (on floor 122).

All these numbers attest to a marvel designed by SOM and built by Samsung, although the vanity behind the unfathomable numbers belongs to the Dubai Emir. In fact, the top 244 meters of the tower are nothing but so called "vanity space", without which the building would lose no usable floor space. The spire itself weighs over 4000 tonnes, and a total of 142000 square meters of cladding was used to clad the building and shield it against the harsh Dubai climate. 

The vanity does not end there, of course, as more than 1000 pieces of art have been used to decorate the interiors of the building. This of course, comes as no surprise, as the building is a challenge to both the world and to the laws of physics, and a symbol ofDubai's rise as a house of global economy. For Dubai, this piece of architecture is not a pinnacle, but just the beginning.

The Mysterious Palace - Forbidden City

A building is not always just a physical entity. In some rarer cases, it is a spiritual being, surviving centuries of mayhem and chaos and living to see many inhabitants come and go, eventually to be remembered and uttered even more often than those inhabitants ever will be. Such buildings usually turn out to be seats of administration, buildings from where executive power in one form or another - be it God's power, emperor's power or the power of the people - radiates from. And what better example of that than the Forbidden Palace of China, which has ruled the world's most populous - and by some accounts at times most powerful - country for more than five centuries?

Built by the Ming Dynasty, the rulers of China from 1368 through to 1644 (although some elements loyal to the Ming Dynasty survived in southern China until 1662) after the Mongol Yuan Dynasty collapsed, the Forbidden Palace was later used by the Qing Dynasty that replaced the Ming until the last emperor, Puyi, was abdicated in 1912 by the newly formed Republic of China. Puyi in fact remained in a form of house arrest in the Forbidden City until his exile following a coup in 1924.

Located in central Beijing, the still functioning capital of People's Republic of China, the Forbidden Palace was built by the Ming between 1406 and 1420 over the course of 14 years. Covering an area of seventy-two hectares, it is a vast complex with priceless examples of Chinese Imperial Architecture. Before elaborating further on that aspect, a brief history of the palace is warranted.

The original site of the Forbidden City was within the then imperial complex of the Yuan Dynasty, only to be burned down after the establishment of the Ming Dynasty by the first emperor - who indeed moved the imperial capital to Nanjing. His son reversed this decision, moving the capital back to Beijing and in the process recomissioning a palace that would later become the Forbidden City.

Built by over a million workers by some accounts, the building complex was decorated with expansive and rare raw material from around the empire to demonstrate the power of the new ruling dynasty. As such, the palace stayed the seat of government and political center of China until rebels under the leadership of Li Zicheng laid siege to, and then captured the palace. He declared himself the new emperor, although his brief rule was ended when a coalition of a former Ming general and Manchu forces of northern China forced him to flee the palace.The joint victory of Ming and Manchu resulted in the formation of a new dynasty, the Qing, who chose to downplay power and underline the importance of harmony - possibly due to the bi-racial structure of the now ruling powers. This was evident in the introduction of newer names for buildings incorporating the word harmony within the palace, as well as bilingual signage.

The Qing ruled from the Forbidden City until - as noted before - Puyi was dismissed of his imperial throne in 1912. Puyi's rise to the throne and his fall, along with his subsequent years in semi-captivity in the Forbidden Palace, his imprisonment and rehabilitation, was the subject of a movie titled The Last Emperor, directed by Bernardo Bertolucci in 1987. This movie, which later went on to win nine Academy Awards (or Oscars), was the first movie that was shot within the confines of the Forbidden Palace by special permission of the Chinese government.

The name Forbidden Palace is not a name invented by Western powers; in fact, the Chinese name for the complex, Zijin Cheng, literally translates to purple forbidden city in English. Purple (zi) is a reference to North Star, which was assumed to be the seat of the celestial emperor; since the terrestrial emperor was the earth counterpart of the celestial emperor. Jin, or forbidden, meant that noone would enter or leave the complex without imperial permission.

The symbology surrounding the palace complex wasn't just in its name; it was evident throughout the architecture of the structure. One such feature is the usage of yellow roof tiles, which was reserved for imperial buildings only as this was the color of the emperor. The architects refrained from this in a few select buildings however, due to other symbological reasons: the library at the Pavillion of Literary Profundity had black tiles associated with water and thus fire protection, Temple of Heaven was adorned with blue tiles symbolizing the sky, and crown prince's residence had green tiles to signify wood and thus growth.

The Chinese dragon - a symbol of the Ming emperors - was used to decorate beams, doors and pillars, but not roofs. Buildings used by the imperial family were allowed to have nine column spacings, and gates used by the emperor were built with five arches, with the middle arch reserved for the emperor alone. The entire complex is said to host 9999 rooms - just short of the number of rooms in heaven. Main halls in both the inner and outer courts of the palace are grouped in threes, symbolizing heaven, whereas residences in the inner court are grouped in sixes, alluding to the Earth.

The buildings were built facing south to protect from harsh northerly winds, but the significance of east in siting of buildings relates to a worship of the Sun and its affiliation with the ruling emperor. Roofs were decorated with a series of statues with a man riding a phoenix in the lead and a dragon at the back, with the number of statues were not allowed to exceed 9 except for the roof of the Hall of Supreme Harmony, which has 10 statues.

The Forbidden City was not only a cast complex of impeccable Chinese Imperial Architecture, but also a breathtaking collection of artwork accumulated over the centuries. These were later put on display in the Palace Museum, established in 1925 after the demise of the Qing Dynasty, only to be evacuated during the Japanese invasion of China in 1933. After the war, part of the artwork forming the museum's collection was moved to the National Palace Museum in Taipei in 1948, where it formed the basis of the collection of that museum.

A UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1987, the Forbidden Palace is now known as Gugong ("Former Palace") in Chinese. The museum is open to visitors from around the world, who come here to marvel at the elegance of the heritage left behind by one of the most powerful empires ever. The Forbidden Palace stands as a testament to the rise and fall of nations, and reminds us that it is the legacy, not the people, that is remembered after we are gone.